"What is the role of the state in human affairs? How is the state to relate to the church of Jesus Christ? How are Christian people to relate to the government's authority? It is these questions that Paul raises and answers in the first seven verses of Romans 13. What a source of controversy they have been! J.C. O'Neill in Paul's Letter to the Romans wrote: "These seven verses have caused more unhappiness and misery in the Christian East and West than any other seven verses in the New Testament." That is probably not true. But they have certainly puzzled many and caused unhappiness among some scholars. Some of them, like the one I just quoted, have attempted to eliminate the verses from the letter, reasoning that they are un-Pauline and come rather from a Stoic source. Such persons think the verses have been interpolated, arguing that verse 8 would follow nicely after 12:21, and that there is nothing quite like this section anywhere else in Paul's writings. This is true, but that does not mean that Paul did not write it. Furthermore, it can be argued equally well that his discussion of the legitimate authority and proper function of the state is a natural follow-up to the immediately preceding section in which he presented the duty of the Christian to return good for evil, since to do that does not always mean that a Christian has to be victimized by evil persons. It is the state's duty to restrain and punish evil. Again, a discussion of the role of the state is natural in a letter to Christians living in the center of the Roman world. Jews were notoriously resistant to all outside authority. They had fomented numerous rebellions, and the greatest one of all, the rebellion that was to be crushed by the Roman general Titus in 70 A.D., was only a decade away from the time Paul wrote this letter. In the sixties, Christians were shielded by a law originally promulgated by Julius Caesar, but turmoil was coming. Were the followers of Christ to align themselves with the coming revolution, or were they to be loyal citizens of the all-encompassing Roman Empire? If so, what about the lordship of Jesus Christ? Was he King, or was he not? If they were not to be loyal citizens what was their position regarding Rome to be?...We often speak today of the separation of church and state, and we should be thankful for that separation. It is a dearly won liberty to have a church free from government interference or control and to have a state free from clerical domination. But the separation of church and state does not mean the separation of God and state. And though we do not rule the state, nor should we, it is nevertheless our duty as Christians to speak out against the civil rulers' sins and remind governing authorities that they are ultimately accountable to him from whom their authority comes. So we are accountable too! We are accountable to speak up. We do not have the power of the sword. That is reserved for the civil authorities, as Paul will show in Romans 13:4. Our weapon is truth, for we are a kingdom of the truth. The truth is stronger than the sword. But woe to us if we do not wield the sword of truth powerfully." (Boice, pp. 1640-1641,1646)

Verse 1
Everyone must submit himself to the governing authority, for there is not authority except that which God has established. The authorities that exist have been established by God.

"Everyone must submit himself to the governing authority..." - Paul's opening statement is comprehensive and categorical. John MacArthur summarizes:

"These seven verses contain the clearest and most specific New Testament teaching on the Christian's responsibility to civil authority. Every Christian, no matter what form of government he lives under, is under command from the Lord to maintain proper and useful submission to that government for the sake of leading a peaceful life and having an effective witness. This recurring theme of submission to society's controlling power is nowhere more forcefully dealt with than here." (MacArthur, pp.205-206)

James Boice is not guilty of exaggeration when he declares: "As far as Romans 13:1 is concerned, it would be difficult, perhaps impossible, for anyone to write a more all-encompassing, absolute, or utterly unqualified statement than the one Paul has given." (Boice, p. 1643) The subject at hand is a matter of urgency and importance. Revolutionary tensions were rising to explosive levels in Palestine and would shortly culminate in the catastrophic uprising of 70AD. Rome itself was in the grip of political turmoil throughout the period. The faltering reign of Tiberius Caesar (14-37AD) was replaced by the tyranny of the bloodthirsty madman Caligula (37-41 AD). Caligula was assassinated by the praetorian guard in 41AD. The guardsmen placed his uncle Claudius, the stutterer, upon the royal throne. Claudius surprised everyone by being a rather competent emperor. He reigned until 54AD. During his rule the Jews were expelled from the city of Rome (49AD)because of their contentious behavior. The infamous Nero became emperor in 54 AD. He instituted the first systematic imperial persecution of Christians after the burning of Rome in 64 AD. The Epistle to the Romans was written around 58AD during the reign of Nero. This is the historical context in which Paul's comments about the role of government were written.

The admonition is addressed "Everyone" (literally - "every soul"). The submission enjoined in the text applies not only to Christians, but to every human being without exception.

The most crucial term in the phrase is the verb - "must submit himself." (Greek - "hypotasestho"). This word is most significant in the New Testament. It literally means "to place under, a combination of the preposition "hypo" ("under) and the verb "tasso" ("to place"). It means to take one's place or to subordinate one's self within an ordered structure or system, so that the structure or system in question may function effectively and accomplish its goals. Submission applies to the acceptance of the authority of another and obedience to their will within the context of a given relationship (cf. 1 Peter 3:5-6). In classical Greek the word is used in a military context in reference to units in an army or ships in a fleet taking their assigned position on the field of battle. In the Bible the term denotes the recognition that God the Creator has placed certain people or institutions in positions of authority so that His creation may function in accordance with His intent for the common good. Such submission is not only enjoined in the realm of government (cf. also Titus 3:1; 1 Peter 2:13-14). It also applies to spiritual leaders in the church (1 Corinthians 16:16; Hebrews13:7,17): to the activities of Christian men and women within the church (1 Corinthians 14:34-38;1 Timothy 2:11-15): to the relationship between a Christian wife and her husband in marriage (Ephesians 5:22-33; Colossians 3:18; Titus 2:5; 1 Peter 3:1-6): to the relationship between children and parents in the family (1 Peter 5:5; Colossians 3:20; Ephesians 6:1): and slaves to their masters (Ephesians 6:5; Titus 2:9). In every case, the concern is that human relationships may function in the way that God designed for the maximum benefit of everyone. Ultimately our submission to those whom God has placed in positions of authority is an expression and an application of our submission to Him (Ephesians 5:24). Note also that the verb in this phrase is in the middle voice "Must submit himself," thus indicating that this submission is a voluntary action on the part of the one who submits.

The object of submission in this phrase is "the governing authorities" (Greek - "exousias hyperechousais" - literally "the ruling powers"). The use of "exousias" rather than the more general Greek word for power - "kratos," signifies a power that has been given or delegated, as the apostle will specify in the phrase which follows. The language of the text identifies the governing authority simply in terms of the possession of power, not the means by which it was obtained or the manner in which it is exercised. Lenski is completely correct in his assertion:

"No particular form of authority is specified; imperial, monarchial, oligarchical, republican, democratic. Whether this authority is exercised in a noble or in an oppressive manner, whether it was attained in a legitimate or an illegitimate way, neither limits nor qualifies the Christian's position." (Lenski, p. 786)

The adjective "governing" means "ruling over." It does not define a particular level of governmental authority but includes all those who are over or above me within a given governmental system. Once again, Paul's language is unmistakably comprehensive. John MacArthur summarizes:

"There is no civil authority, Paul says, except from God. No matter what form it takes, no human government at any time in history, at any place on earth, among any people on earth, at any level of society, has ever existed or will ever exist apart from the sovereign authority of God because all power belongs to God (Psalm 62:11)...The autocratic, ruthless, and demonic regimes of Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin, and Mao Tse Tung were no exception to God's command to be subject to civil authority. The equally ruthless empires of ancient Assyria and Babylon were no exceptions...There are no exceptions." (MacArthur, pp.219-220)

The basis for our submission to all governmental is clearly defined - "for there is no authority except that which God has established. The authorities that exist have been established by God." The language is inescapably absolute and all inclusive. All those who hold the power of government have received that power from God. This fundamental assertion is not unique to Paul or the New Testament. Scripture applies the same legitimizing principle to Babylonian emperors (Daniel 4:17; 5:21; Jeremiah 27:6) and the Persian conquerors who replace them (Isaiah 45:1-5): to Hebrew kings (1 Samuel 14:13-14) and to Roman governors (John 19:11).

Implicit in that assertion, however, is the truth that since God has established all government, all government remains answerable to the God who established it. There are limits beyond which human government cannot properly go. As our Lord declares: "Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's and unto God the things that are God's." (Matthew 22:21) When those limits are transgressed and human government seeks to command or compel that which is contrary to God's Word and will then Christians must choose to "Obey God rather than men." (Acts 5:29) In those specific instances where obedience to the government would mean disobedience to God the Christian has not only the right but the duty to disobey men because of a primary loyalty to God. Charles Hodge notes:

"There is no limitation to the injunction in this verse, so far as the objects of obedience are concerned, although there is as to the extent of the obedience itself. That is, we are to obey all who are in actual authority over us, whether their authority be legitimate or usurped, whether they are just or unjust. The actual reigning emperor was to be obeyed by Roman Christians no matter what they might think of his title to the sceptre. But if he transcended his authority, and required them to worship idols, they were to obey God rather than man. This is the limitation to all human authority. Whenever obedience to man is inconsistent with obedience to God, then disobedience becomes a duty." (Hodge, p. 640)

Such God-pleasing civil disobedience, however, applies only to particular situations with individual laws or government policies. It does not release the Christian from his overall responsibility to submit to or obey the government.

Verse 2
Consequently, he who rebels against the authority is rebelling against what God has instituted, and those who do so will bring judgment upon themselves.

"Consequently, he who rebels..." - The conclusions drawn in Verse 2 are the natural, logical result of the basic principles established in the preceding verse. If all governmental authority has been established by God then all those who participate in attempts to overthrow or resist the government must be guilty of rebelling against God and that which He has established. The correlation between the two verses is nicely expressed by the contrasting verbs. The verb "rebels" (Greek - "antitassomenos" - literally - "to place one's self against") is the counterpart and opposite of the verb "submit" (Greek - "hupotassestho" - literally - "to place one's self under"). As submission to the authority of government constitutes submission to the authority of God who established government, so also rebellion against the government constitutes rebellion against God. "The people of God then ought to consider resistence to the government under which they live as a very awful crime, even as resistence to God Himself." (MacArthur, p. 220) Rebellion and revolution are never an alternative for the conscientious Christian, no matter how evil or corrupt the government may be. Luther most emphatically agrees: "No rebellion is justified, however justified its grievance may be... I side and will ever side with the party that suffers rebellion, however unjust a cause it may have; and I will oppose the party that starts a rebellion, however just a cause it may have." (SL,10.365)

The consequences or rebellion against the government which God has established are dire. Paul warns that those who participate in rebellion "will bring judgement upon themselves." The noun "judgement" (Greek - "krima") refers in the first instance to the temporal consequences of revolution as the government acts to defend itself and to suppress the revolt. Revolution is a violent and bloody business. Most often the result is the very chaos and anarchy which government was designed by God to prevent. In addition to all this there are also eternal consequences involved and "judgement" points beyond time to the ultimate judgement of God who will punish in eternity those who choose to deny and defy Him.

Verses 3-5
For rulers hold no terror for those who do right, but for those who do wrong. Do you want to be free from fear of the one in authority? Then do what is right and he will commend you. For he is God's servant to do you good. But if you do wrong, be afraid, for he does not bear the sword for nothing. He is God's servant, and agent of wrath to bring punishment on the wrongdoer. Therefore, it is necessary to submit to the authorities, not only because of possible punishment but also because of conscience.

"For rulers hold no terror for those who do right..." - Paul asserts the role of government in maintaining peace and order as yet another reason why Christians ought to submit and obey those in authority. Luther makes the same point, arguing that if all men were perfect Christians there would be no need for government. The purpose of this divine institution is to restrain the destructiveness and violence of sin.

"When a prince so rules his people so as not to permit anyone to be wronged and punishes the evildoer, he does well and is praised. For thus it is in this government...Such government we must have, but no one will get to heaven that way, nor will the world be saved by it. However, it is necessary in order to prevent the world from getting worse. It is simply a protection against and a restraint upon wickedness. For if this government did not exist, men would devour one another and no one would be able to protect his life, goods, wife, and child. So, God has instituted the power of the sword in order to prevent the destruction of everything and at least partially restrain wickedness. Thereby, government can secure and maintain external peace and no one may inflict injustice upon someone else. Therefore it must be tolerated. Nevertheless, as we have stated, it was not established for citizens of heaven, but simply so that people may not fall more deeply into hell and make matter worse." (SL, XI, 1789)

The role of government is, in this sense, essentially negative, to hold back evil and to minimize its destructive impact on the weak and the vulnerable. Unfortunately, Robert Haldane does not exaggerate in the least when he offers this grim assessment: "The world, ever since the fall, has been in such a state of corruption and depravity, that without the powerful obstacle presented by civil government to the selfish and malignant passions of men, it would be better to live among the beasts of the forest than in human society. As soon as its restraints are removed, man shows himself in his real character." (MacArthur, p. 225) The apostle's advice is practical and straightforward - to avoid conflict with the government obey its laws and do that which is right. For the law-abiding citizen, there should be nothing to fear from those whom God has placed in authority.

"But if you do wrong, be afraid, for he does not bear the sword for nothing." - The wrong-doer, however, has good reason to fear the government. Without that fear, peace and order could not be maintained. Hence, God has entrusted to civil government the coercive power of the "sword," that is, the authority to use physical force, up to and including so-called capital punishment and the waging of just war to protect its citizens and uphold justice. To punish the criminal or repel the aggressor are the very tasks for which civil government was instituted and those responsibilities must be carried out relentlessly. When the government does so, it is functioning as "God' servant, an agent of wrath." The Greek text in this phrase is considerably stronger than the translation. It designates the government as "an instrument of vengeance for wrath," that is, one who exacts justice and repays blood for blood. The state is thus charged with that which is explicitly forbidden to the Christian. The use of the powerful term "wrath," usually connected with the judgement of God in the Book of Romans, emphasizes the role of the government as God's agent in punishing the wrong-doer. Luther bluntly remarks:

"Into the hands of some people, God places a sword, which they are to wield. These people are all those who through regular and customary means are called to temporal government in order to rule, to look to and further the common welfare, and to prevent public offense. Into the hands of these people, God places the sword; that is, it is God's will and ordinance that they are to wield the sword, not in their own interest but in the interests of their subjects; as St. Paul says, temporal government is the "minister of God, a revenger to execute wrath upon him that doeth evil." (Romans 13:4) For since the world will not let itself be drawn by words so that general peace and harmony is sustained and wantonness prevented, severity must be used and people must be kept from sin by force. If a thief will not quit his stealing, let him be hanged on the public gallows. Then one is protected against him. If a malicious scoundrel wants to harm everybody as he pleases and wants to beat and stab at the provocation of a word, let justice be meted out to him at the place of public execution. Then he will no longer disturb one's peace; he will no longer beat or stab anybody. The executioner will nicely keep him from doing that." (SL 13a, 373)

Mercy, kindness, and forgiveness are not the role of government. The government cannot create morality, but it must enforce the moral values of its people through the laws of the land. When it fails to do so, the result will be anarchy. In his classic book Toward a Biblical View of Civil Government, Dr. Robert Culver writes:

"What must not be lost sight of is that, unpleasant as is the task of the jailor and the use of the whip, the cell, the noose, the guillotine, these things stand behind the stability of civilized society, and they stand there necessarily, for God has declared it so, in harmony with reality, rather than with apostate sociological opinion. Government, with its coercive powers, is a social necessity, but one determined by the Creator, not by the statistical tables of some university social research staff! No society can successfully vote fines, imprisonment, corporal and capital punishment away permanently. The society which tries has lost touch with the realities of man ( his fallen sinful state), realities of the world, and the truth of divine revelation in nature, man's conscience, and the Bible." (Culver, p. 256)

"Therefore, it is necessary to submit to the authorities, not only because of possible punishment but also because of conscience." - For the Christian, the desire to avoid punishment should not be the basic motive for submission and obedience. Instead, this becomes a matter of "conscience." The believer recognizes the hand of God in the institution of government and willingly submits to the authority of the government because of his compelling desire to obey and honor God.

Verses 6-7
This is also why you pay taxes, for the authorities are God's servants, who give their full time to governing. Give everyone what you owe him: If you owe taxes, pay taxes; if revenue, then revenue; if respect, then respect; if honor, then honor.

"That is also why you pay taxes..." - The most concrete and practical expression of submission to the government was, and is, the payment of taxes. Oppressive taxation was no more popular in the ancient world than it is today (cf. 1 Kings 12). In the case of the Jews, Rome's taxes were bitterly resented as a constant reminder of their status as a conquered nation. The Roman system of taxation in the provinces was all the more infuriating because of its pervasive corruption. Tax collectors grew fat and rich by drastically over-collecting the taxes and keeping the difference for themselves. These infamous publicans were despised by the people as traitors and thieves. Christ's willingness to associate with "publicans and sinners," like Matthew or Zacchaeus, was highly controversial. The Pharisees and the Herodians conspired together to use this issue as a trap which would discredit the Lord in the eyes of the people with their clever question: "Tell us then, what is your opinion? Is it right to pay taxes or not? (Matthew 22:15-22). Christ's classic response: "Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's and unto God the things that are God"s" not only evaded their trap but also clearly expressed the Biblical view of the responsibility of the Christian to government. Paul's explanation in this text brushes aside the passions of nationalism and affirms the Christian's duty to support the work of the government through the payment of taxes. Two different words for paying taxes are used: "taxes" (Greek - "phoros") which refers to the taxes paid by a subject nation; and, "revenue" (Greek - "telos") which refers to the tariffs, tolls, and sales taxes which were paid by all. The payment of taxation in whatever form provides support for those who are "God's servants." The text uses the fascinating noun "leitourgos" for the agents of the government as servants of God. The English word "liturgy" is derived from this Greek noun. It is frequently used in the Old Testament to refer to those who conducted the services of the Temple. The same usage also carried over into the New Testament (cf. Hebrews 8:2; 10:11). Paul's use of the word here more closely reflects the classical Greek usage in which "leitourgia" was public service performed on behalf of the state.

"Give everyone what you owe him; If you owe taxes pay taxes..." - The segment concludes with a broad summary statement. The Christian citizen must be one who fulfills his obligations in every respect, based upon his recognition of the divine establishment of government. Justin Martyr, the 2^nd century theologian and church father, summarized the Christian perspective in these words addressed to the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius:

"Everywhere, we Christians, more readily than all men, endeavor to pay to those appointed by you the taxes both ordinary and extraordinary, as we have been taught by Jesus; for at that time some came to Him and asked Him, if one ought to pay tribute to Caesar; and He answered, "Tell me, whose image does the coin bear?" And they said, "Caesar's." And again He answered them, "Render therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesar's and to God the things that are God's." Whence to God alone we render worship, but in other things we gladly serve you, acknowledging you as kings and rulers of men, and praying that with your kingly power you be found to possess also sound judgement." (ANF,1, p., 168)

Verses 8-10
Let no debt remain outstanding, except the continuing debt to love one another, for he who loves his fellow man has fulfilled the law. The commandments, "Do not commit adultery," "Do not murder," "Do not steal," "Do not covet," and whatever other commandments there may be, are summed up in this one rule: "Love your neighbor as yourself." Love does no harm to its neighbor. Therefore, love is the fulfillment of the law.

"Let no debt remain outstanding, except the continuing debt..." - This discussion of love and the law is linked to the preceding verses by the repetition of the concept of obligation. Verse 7 - "Give everyone what you owe him...:" Verse 8 - "Let no debt remain outstanding" (literally - "owe nothing to anyone.") The idea of debt repayment becomes the transition from the issue of supporting the government through paying taxes to Paul's main concern, in the following segment, the never-ending debt of love. This verse should not be understood as an absolute of borrowing of any kind. Lending and borrowing were common and legitimate practices in ancient Israel. The Law carefully regulated the practice, limiting interest rates to honest and reasonable levels, and prohibiting the charging of interest (KJV "usury") to those who were destitute altogether (cf. Exodus 22:25; Leviticus 25: 35-36; Nehemiah 5:7; Ezekiel 22:12; Psalm 37:21,26; Proverbs 19:17). In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus commends the practice with these words: "Give to him who asks of you, and do not turn away from him who wants to borrow from you." (Matthew 5:42) In Christ's parable of the talents, the master condemns his unprofitable because he hadn't even bothered to deposit his money in a bank so that "on my arrival I would have received my money back with interest." (Matthew 25:27). "This command does not forbid a Christian from ever incurring a debt (e.g. to buy a house or a car); it rather demands that Christians repay any debts they do incur promptly and in accordance with terms of the contract." (Moo, p. 812) Hence, the NIV's translation "Let no debt remain outstanding" better reflects the sense of the text that the KJV's more literal Owe no man anything." The prohibition is of financial irresponsibility and greed not borrowing and lending in general. "It does condemn the looseness with which we contract debts and particularly the indifference so often displayed in the discharging of them. (Murray, pp. 158-159) James Montgomery Boice makes pointed application of this passage to the contemporary American situation:

"The point of Romans 13:8 is not that Christians should never borrow, but that they should never leave their debts unpaid...But the problem for many Americans, including our government, is that debt financing has become a way of life, and those who borrow are frequently enticed, misled, or trapped into borrowing more than they are able to repay. Then they default on their payments and often escape the weight of their financial obligations by declaring personal bankruptcy. Bankruptcy means cheating the person or company that has lent the money and it is an unjust and impermissible course of action for a Christian." (Boice, p. 1682)

"Except the continuing debt to love one another." - While financial debts can be repaid and satisfied in full we owe another debt that can never be fully repaid, namely "the continuing debt to love one another." The imagery of debt and repayment is effective in this context as an expression of the reality that our love for one another is the necessary response to the love which we have received from God in Christ. In that sense, our obligation to love one another is indeed a debt, something which is to be repaid. Origen, the great Bible scholar of the early church paraphrases the verse in this way: "Let you only debt that is unpaid be that of love - a debt which you should always be attempting to discharge, but will never succeed in discharging." (Moo, p. 813)

"For he who loves his fellow man has fulfilled the law." - The concept of love as the perfect fulfillment of the law is clearly based upon the teaching of Jesus (cf. Matthew 5:43-48; 22:37-40; 19:17-19; Mark 12:28-33; Luke 10:25-28; John 13:34-35; cf. also Galatians 5:14; James 2:8). Such love cannot be reduced to a mere feeling or emotion. It is rather "an energy that works, namely with inherent intelligence and purpose. It could not possibly remain inactive." (Lenski, p. 800) The Law of God is an expression of His love and concern for the well-being and happiness of mankind. Accordingly, as that Law pertains to our conduct and attitude toward one another, its specifications are merely the application of love to particular circumstances. They guide the Christian in discerning how love expresses itself in these specific instances. Therefore the generalization that love is the fulfillment of the law is valid. Paul illustrates his point with reference to the sixth, seventh, fifth, ninth and tenth commandments, but adds the generalizing conclusion - "and whatever other commandments there may be" - to indicate that his list is not intended to be exhaustive. The principle applies to all the precepts of God's Law. "Love is the entire summation of the law and not a further part of it. Love for another human being is the whole of the second table of the law even as Paul here state." (Lenski, p. 798) The quotation "Love your neighbor as yourself" is drawn from Leviticus 19:18, following the precedent of Christ's earlier comments (cf. references above). Such love is inherently constructive. It cannot damage or destroy. "Love does no harm to its neighbor."

"And do this, understanding the present time." - All this must be a matter of profound urgency. Our time is not unlimited. The end is upon us. We have come to the latter days. This segment of admonition and encouragement concludes with an emphatic assertion of "the eschatological context of all Christian ethics." (Dunn, p. 785) Christ has come and He is coming again. For the believer"understanding the present time" means a recognition that we are living in the final era of human history, the end times. Paul uses the powerful Greek noun "kairos" to describe the moment. In contrast to "chronos," the more ordinary Greek word for time, "kairos" designates an appointed time, a moment of divine destiny in which God offers His people an opportunity and confronts them with a challenge. There is a sense of great urgency inherent in this term. It comes, and then it goes, and once having gone it is lost forever. The text impresses this sense of urgency through a series of images that deal with wakefulness and sleep, day and night, and light and darkness. Time is limited. The opportunity is brief. To the Ephesians, St. Paul had written - "Awake sleeper and arise from the dead, and Christ will shine on you." (Ephesians 5:14) The Christians in Rome receive an equally urgent wake up call. This is no time for spiritual dozing. "Sleep is figurative for anything resembling delay, carelessness, indifference. The sleeper likes to put off rising out of his easy bed." (Lenski, p. 802) Each days of our lives we literally move one day closer to "our salvation," that is, our transfer from the church militant to the church triumphant. Whether that salvation is accomplished as a part of Christ's glorious return to judgement for mankind or individually through my death makes no difference. The end result will be the same in either case. We are moving ever closer to the complete realization of the salvation which was God's gift to us when he bestowed the gift of faith upon us - "when we first believed." The dark hours of the night are drawing to their conclusion. The dawn of the great day is near. The shameful "deeds of darkness" must now be put aside. In the parallel text in Ephesians 5, the apostle develops the imagery of light and darkness in greater detail:

"For you were once darkness but now you are light in the Lord. Live as children of light (for the fruit of the light consists in all goodness, righteousness and truth) and find out what pleases the Lord. Have nothing to do with the fruitless deeds of darkness, but rather expose them. For it is shameful even to mention what the disobedient do in secret. But everything exposed by the light becomes visible, for it is light that makes everything visible." (Ephesians 5:8-14)

The concept of warfare between darkness and light is suggested by Paul's use of the phrase "put on the armor of light." (cf. Ephesians 6:13-18) The Greek text, which literally urges "put on the weapons of light" ("ta hopla tou photos") is even more forceful.

The text goes on to specify a representative list of the "deeds of darkness." They include: "not in orgies and drunkenness, not in sexual immorality and debauchery, not in dissension and jealousy." This list is not exhaustive but is characteristic of the numerous vice-lists found in the Pauline literature of the New Testament (cf. Romans 1:29-31; 1 Corinthians 5:10-11; 6:9-10; 2 Corinthians 12:20; Galatians 5:19-21; Ephesians 4:31; 5:3-5; Colossians 3:5,8; 1 Timothy 1:9-10; 6:4-5; 2 Timothy 3:2-4; Titus 3:3). The first pair - "orgies and drunkenness" is in the plural, perhaps indicated the prevalence of these sins. The term "orgies" (Greek - "komois") originally referred to wild celebrations held in honor of the Greek god Dionysus, the god of ecstasy and wine. These revels involved violent obscene sexuality of every description combined with drunkenness and drugs. "Drunkenness" (Greek - "methe" describes the excessive or abusive use of alcohol. The theme throughout this segment appears to be the excess and abuse which leads to compulsion and addiction. John Chrysostom, the great teacher of the early church notes:

"Paul does not forbid alcohol; he is opposed only to its excessive use. Not does he prohibit sexual intercourse; rather, he is against fornication. What he wants to do is get rid of the deadly passions of lust and anger. Therefore he does not merely attack them, but goes to their source as well. For nothing kindles lust or wrath so much as excessive drinking." (Bray, p. 335)

The second combination combines "sexual immorality" (Greek - "koite") and "debauchery" (Greek - "aselgeiais"). The former generally refers to any sexual intercourse, however in combination with the latter it takes on the meaning of inappropriate or sinful sexual activity. "Debauchery" is a strongly negative term which describes corrupt, depraved, excessive indulgence in sensual pleasures and licentiousness.

The focus shifts in the final pair of dark deeds - "dissension and jealousy." "Dissension" (Greek - "eridi") expresses the concept of contentiousness that leads to quarreling and strife. "Jealousy" (Greek - "zelo") can also have a neutral or positive meaning depending on its context. The word itself simply describes intense emotion or zeal. Here it denotes the kind of zeal which does not try to help others but rather to harm them, the predominant concern being for personal advancement." (Dunn, p. 790) These two characteristics are also combined in 1 Corinthians 3:3 and Galatians 5:19-21.

"Rather, clothe yourselves with the Lord Jesus Christ, and do not think about how to gratify the desires of the sinful nature." - The point is reiterated once more in a final combination of imperatives. As the deeds of darkness were to be "put aside," then in their place we are to "clothe yourselves with the Lord Jesus Christ." The language recalls Romans 6 and our incorporation into Christ in Baptism (cf. Colossians 3:9-10; Galatians 3:27). In Ephesians 4, Paul uses the same terminology to urge believers to "put on the new man." (Ephesians 4:13). "Paul's exhortation to put on the Lord Jesus Christ means that we are consciously to embrace Christ in such a way that his character is manifested in all that we do and say." (Moo, pp. 825-826) That means, of course, a complete repudiation of the way of the old Adam, our sinful nature. To gratify its desires means to deny Christ, that we may share in His victory over sin, death, and the power of the devil. This is the ongoing struggle of sanctification, the daily battle between the saint that I have become in Christ and the sinner that I am by nature.

(continue)